Firearms For Security

Among small arms, the RIFLE and shotgun are both long-barreled weapons used for long-range shooting; the PISTOL has a shorter barrel and is accurate only at relatively short ranges. The REVOLVER, usually a pistol, has a revolving cylinder that allows repeat firing. The precise origin of firearms is unknown, although they were certainly in use by the early 14th century and were fairly common in Europe by mid-century. These early guns were little more than large-caliber tubes of wrought iron or cast bronze, closed at one end and loaded by placing GUNPOWDER and projectile in the muzzle, or open end. They were fired by touching a burning wick, or match, to the powder at a â€Å"touch-hole† bored in the top of the barrel. To make certain that the powder would ignite, a recess was incised around the hole into which additional powder–the primer–was pouredSmoothbore muskets were notorious for their short range and poor accuracy. Seeking to improve performance, gun makers etched spiral grooves, or rifling, inside the musket barrel. The grooving imparted a spin to the projectile, thus stabilizing its trajectory. Rifles became popular with hunters in both Europe and America, but they were impractical for most military uses because they were difficult to load. In 1849 the French army captain Claude Minie invented the conical minie ball, which was easily dropped down the barrel of a rifled musket but expanded to engage the rifling when the weapon was fired. Rifles using expandable bullets had four times the range and accuracy of the smoothbore musket. Hunting is the stalking, pursuit, and killing of game animals or birds. Humans hunting for sport enjoy the excitement of these activities. Modern sport hunters may use the modern technology of a high-powered, telescopically aimed rifle or may approximate the conditions of their primitive ancestors and use a bow and arrow. They may also be assisted by animals such as dogs and horses. Humans have hunted for food for thousands of years. Hunting exclusively for sport, however, is a comparatively recent development. For both the North American Indian and the early colonists hunting provided a cheap and seemingly limitless food supply. As the eastern coast of the continent was settled, predators were eliminated because they posed a threat to domestic livestock. Forests were cleared for fuel and farming, and many species were depleted or disappeared. Eventually a series of reforms was enacted to save game throughout the United States. The time of year when game could be taken was limited. Licensing was required, with the funds raised from the sale of licenses going to support state game departments. The numbers of animals that one person could take in a season were also restricted. In addition, large parcels of land were set aside in the national park system in which hunting was prohibited. These measures have been effective in preserving wildlife resourcesHunting in the United States can be classified into one of five types: big game–bears, cougars, wolves, and the large ungulates such as deer, elk, antelope, moose, and wild sheep and goats; waterfowl–ducks and geese; upland game birds–turkeys, grouse, and pheasants; small game–squirrels and rabbit; and varmints–pest species unprotected by game laws. Hunters use shotguns when pursuing small game or birds in flight and use rifles for larger quarry. A hunter may either still hunt–sit and wait for game–or stalk the prey–approaching within shooting range undetected. In a drive, beaters alarm concealed animals, which, as they leave their hiding places, pass waiting hunters. Other less frequently used ways of taking game include bow and arrow, traps, spears, blowguns and boomerangs. In the United States about 16 million hunting licenses are purchased each year. The number of individuals who hunt is estimated to be slightly larger. Hunting in all it forms is a subject of controversy in the United States. Critics of hunting range from ANIMAL RIGHT activists–who oppose all hunting on principle–to those whose objections concern the competence and conduct of hunters. The latter claim that hunters violate game laws, trespass, kill livestock, damage property, and endanger human life with the careless use of firearms. Proponents of the sport maintain that hunters play a significant role in conservation and game control, as well as being a source of revenue for wildlife management services. They further contend that hunting is a safe activity because of safety classes, the wearing of â€Å"safety† orange (required in 41 states in the early 1990s), and the increasingly stringent licensing requirements mandated by state game departments.

The Football World Cup The WritePass Journal

The Football World Cup The Football World Cup .   The introduction of the Internet, ever-increasing wages and transfer fees for players, the Bosman ruling, increased media coverage of games, footballers gaining celebrity status have all changed the game in some way.   Similarly, stars such as David Beckham and Wayne Rooney are known just as much for what they do off the pitch as they are for what they do on it.   Hence, they are also not allowed to be just a working class lad.   They have to be spectacularised as much as the game itself. Spectacularisation therefore is defined by Macionis and Plummer (2007) as a kind of ‘mediated simulacrum’ by which everyone is watching the same event where everything is blown up to Widescreen proportions (Macionis and Plummer: 2008: 84)beyond reality to hyperreality.   The concept of a mediated simulacrum comes from the ideas of the literary critic Jean Baudrillard who maintained that the media image as seen on the television and the Internet is this ‘mediated simulacrum’. Topor (2010), citing Baudrillard, states that: The media itself is therefore responsible for this breakdown of reality since it only provides us with simulated events and communications. As long as there is media, there will exist a simulation and reproduction of signs that constitute reality.   The relation of media to simulation is an investigation into the idea of unknowable reality (Topor: 2002: no page number given). In   terms of blowing up from reality to hyperreality   it could be argued that the propaganda of the Italian government on the run-up to the 1934 World Cup helped maintain public excitement in the upcoming event.   According to Gordon and London (2007), wireless ownership in Italy was low compared to other countries but people often listened to the radio collectively in public places (Tomlinson and Young: 2008: 46). Moreover, they were often listening to sports programmes.   However, according to Gordon and London (2007), citing Ricanatesi:1978): The rapid acceleration of state initiatives in radio, from the early 1930’s, coincided with the build up to the World Cup, and the role of radio in football was immeasurably enhanced following the debut in 1933 of commentator Niccolo Carosio, whose florid, creative and decidedly non-technical broadcasts..Radio sales saw a spurt for the World Cup (Tomlinson and Young: 2007: 46) Even though the audience would not have been the same in terms of size and the technology used would only have been the radio broadcast to a select few who had wirelesses, the effect of making the real into hyper-reality would have been the same. As mentioned above by Whannel (1992), part of the spectacularisation of football has been the removal of the maximum wage as well as an increase in transfer fees paid from one club to another.   In terms of the professionalization of players it is also only part of the story.   Indeed, players now command huge weekly wages and transfer fees which have become increasingly larger over the decades.   To put things in perspective, Nottingham Forest paid out  £1 million for Trevor Francis in 1980 and this was considered to be the most expensive transfer ever.   He became the first ‘million pound player’ in the world.   In 2010, Real Madrid paid out  £100 million pounds for Cristiano Ronaldo.   Both of these transfers are put into perspective when it is considered that all of the 1930 World Cup team had other jobs as well as being international football players (Lisi: 2008: 8). As well as this, players are now members of professional bodies (like the PFA in England or even the FA) and as such they are subject to rules of conduct and behaviour in much the same way as other professions are.   In this way, they are more socially controlled.   According to Macionis and Plummer (2007) professionalization means that: Sports are not just played. Now they have ‘elite groups’-the professional organizations which mark both standards (and boundaries) of skill. Sports are socially controlled and regulated (Macionis and Plummer:   2007:84). Postmodernised sport, as defined by Macionis and Plummer (2008: 84), represents a splintering and increase of the amount of sports played.   It also represents differing groups playing their own versions of a sporting event (‘Gay Olympics’, Paralympics).   However, the part of the definition as put forward by Macionis and Plummer (2008: 84), is the idea that the World Cup is becoming ‘more and more a media event’.   Obviously, this is also connected to all of the other aspects of how the World Cup has changed.   Commercialisation and consumption have made it possible for the World Cup to be more visible to more people by providing the revenue as well as the means to do so.   Globalisation has been made possible by the technology used to beam the events into every country throughout the world.   Spectacularisation has meant that world events like the World Cup are not just covered by the media.   They are heightened from reality to hyper-reality by means of HD televisions and interactivity through the Internet.   In this way, postmodernisation or the process of postmodernism can be explained. Roughly interpreted, postmodernism is not actually easy to define but the clearest definition is: Postmodernism is largely a reaction to the assumed certainty of scientific , or objective, efforts   to explain reality.   In essence, it stems from a recognition that reality is not simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather, is constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular and personal reality (www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/postm-body.html) So in the case of the ‘postmodernisation’ of football and the World Cup in particular it is the way in which football has been etched onto the public consciousness by repeated images (Electronic, printed and broadcast)that has made the World Cup a postmodernised concept. Conclusion This is obviously as far removed from the World Cup’s early beginnings at it could possibly be.   However, the seeds were already being sown especially in light of the efforts made by the Italian government on the run-up to 1934 to enhance the experience of the Italian public of what was rapidly becoming their national sport. Since that time the World Cup has become an international event which has seen many things happen and has made sure that these events have been broadcast to the viewing public (though in the case of the shooting of the Colombian player in 1994 that was not the case). The goal-that-never-was in the 1966 World Cup final, Pele,   Banks’ save in 1970, The Hand of God incident in 1986, the penalty shootouts in 1990; the list could go on and on.   However, they have all been written into the public consciousness by an ever-increasingly knowing publicity machine which now uses a combination of media coverage and merchandising to get its point across. In turn , the World Cup has come to represent each nation’s feelings and aspirations about itself.   Political events which have remained in the background of events on the field have shown themselves in the way that rivalries have been maintained, victories have been celebrated and defeats have been commiserated.   This fact has been true ever since the first World Cup but has been accentuated by the increase in technology and the amount of distance covered by electronic signals to bring these projected images into the lounges and bars of the worldwide population. Reference List Critcher, C, (1979), ‘Football since the War’ IN: Clarke, C, Critcher, C and Johnson, R (Eds.), ‘Working Class Culture, Hutchinson, London Gordon, R, and London, J (2006), ‘Chapter 3: Italy 1934: Football and Fascism’,IN: Tomlinson A and Young, C (eds.) (2006) ‘National Identity and Global Sports Events: Culture, Politics and Spectacle in the Olympics and the Football World Cup’, State University of New York Press, State University of New York, Albany NY   USA Lisi, CA, (2011), ‘A History of the World Cup 1930-2010’, Scarecrow Press, Maryland, USA Macionis, JJ, and Plummer, K (2007), ‘Sociology: A Global Introduction’, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow, England Topor, J (2002), ‘Simulation, simulacrum, definition of’, Available at www.csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/simulationsimulacrum2.htm Whannel, G, (1992), ‘Media Sports Stars: Masculinities and Moralities, Routledge Press, London Dictionary.com, ‘consumption’ Available at www.dictionary.com Definition of postmodernism available at www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/postm-body.html, no author given

Japanese healthcare system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Japanese healthcare system - Essay Example The delivery of healthcare services in Japan is largely controlled by the government despite the fact that the private sector is involved in the provision of health services. Despite covering the citizens of Japan, the healthcare system also offers medical services to foreigners who might visit the country. The cover provided to the citizens of Japan also depends on employment and the income earned by each individual citizen (Haffner et al, 2009) In every healthcare system, there are expenses incurred in providing services such as treatment, as well as drugs. In Japan, healthcare is paid for by the government, as well as medical insurance cover. Healthcare costs incurred are also paid for by the insurance cover; the social security system of Japan is divided into several pillars, which include public health, social welfare, social insurance, as well as public assistance. Social insurance is mandatory for all citizens and insures them against medical expenses that might be incurred as a result of health conditions. The National Health Insurance Act in Japan has set up an insurance system that is universal to ensure that all citizens can manage to pay for the healthcare costs they incur (Johnson & Stoskopf, 2010). Employed citizens have an employee’s insurance system whereby they pay a premium on a monthly basis based on their income. There is also national health insurance that caters for self-employed individuals. Hea lth insurance in Japan also caters for the elderly persons aged above 75 years. The decision of what care is covered is left to the health insurance agencies, as well as the contribution of the insured persons. Those who contribute a huge amount receive expensive insurance cover compared to those whose contributions are low. In addition, the health policies that the Japanese government has set up also determine the care provided to the citizens. The private sector also determines the care covered by the healthcare system of

DB Q#4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

DB Q#4 - Assignment Example Section 504 contains three alternate prongs based on a three criteria (Zirkel, 2009 P.1, L 3-10). The first prong is for individuals who have; a) a mental or physical impairment that; b) substantially limits; c) a major life activity. The second and third parts are for people who are not currently meeting these three criteria but have a record of or are regarded as meeting the requirements. The office of civil rights (OCR) is the department within the education department that enforces and administers section 504 in K-12 school setting. They are vocal in the interpretation of the second and third prongs in relation to learners. They have also clarified the regarded as and record of points to provide protection against exclusions. OCR has also ensured that students under the first prong are entitled to a free and appropriate education (Zirkel, 2009 P.1, L 11-26). The Americans with Disabilities Act properly covers the deafness disability. It has identified deafness as a condition that substantially limits hearing and also states that hearing is a major life activity. The act has had positive effects on deaf people within public accommodations by ensuring that they are not discriminated against, for example to enter certain premises (Steinberg, 2013 Paragraph 3). The ADA together with ADAAA fails to recognize partial hearing as a disability. Under ADAs definition of disability, the only issue found in people with one deaf ear is that they have difficulty hearing in noisy surroundings. The definition according to ADA means that partial deafness does not substantially limit the person’s abilities, the ruling is evident in the Christine Mengel case (Steinberg, 2013 P.2, Paragraph

Economics of Ram Trucks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Economics of Ram Trucks - Essay Example It has developed and grown over time. It has membership eighteen thousand members. This organization has sixty-eight branches. It is headquarter is in Birmingham, and it covers an area of three thousand square foot. In addition is has a library that has over seventy-five thousand photos of trucks, and nine hundred trucking books. It has also ten thousand sales vouchers and videos featuring trucks in the show room. History of the RAM truck The first man to build a mobile Truck is Gotttlieb Daimler. This German invented a truck which used a horse power engine and a belt drive. This belt drive had both forward and reverse speeds. This pioneer is the one who invented the first taxi and motorcycle in the year 1897. Ernest Holmes contributed immensely to the development and growth of this industry of RAM trucks. He helped in the retrieving of a colleague’s car in the year 1913. This was done through the use of a chain, a puller and three poles. RAM truck was formed in 2009. Its form ation was an upgrade of Dodge trucks. The objective of this company was to deal with serious truck customers. Its brand was also established after the parent company formed an alliance with Fiat Company. This alliance led to the use of the Ram brand in selling pick-ups and heavy duty trucks. This took effect in 2010. The current state of the trucking industry The truck industry is pivotal in the economic growth and development of any nation. This is because the transport sector plays a core function in the transport of various goods and services to various destinations for business purpose. For instance, the truck industry enabled the government to earn one hundred and twenty five thousand dollars of revenue in a single year. This revenue was obtained from a total of sixty five thousand truck companies.. Thousands of employees employed in theses companies ensured that necessary tasks were accomplished in order to obtain the returns. This boost on the economy increased the GDP of the nation which in turn led to the provision of social amenities to the society. This increased the living standards of the locals. Furthermore, the truck industry enhanced the refurbishment of the infrastructure hence improving the movement of goods and services within the society. Technocrats were also employed to ensure that traffic rules were adhered to in order to avert accidents which could be committed by errant truck drivers. This owes to the fact that the regulation of the speed leads to efficiency in fuel consumption. The only malpractice which persists is the high level of driver turnover. His leads to disruption of transport services and business transactions. There is lack of communication between the truck drivers and their bosses. This led to inconveniences and strikes within the industry. Furthermore, the drivers of the trucks are paid their salaries based on the miles covered. The law pertaining to the road use applies equally to all people. Therefore, the truck drive rs should not infringe on the rights of the pedestrians. The drivers, who are within the truck industry make informed decisions with regard to their driving career. For instance, they ensure that their various are up-to-date. The industry has initiated various programmes that have inculcated skills upon the drivers. This has boosted the professionalism in the truck and transport industries. In fact, this is manifest in the performance of

Aircraft Crash Survival Analysis and Design Essay

Aircraft Crash Survival Analysis and Design - Essay Example While the paper dwells on the basics operation and construction of ejection seat, it also brings out new developments in the field. Emergency escape from a malfunctioning aircraft is of utmost importance for any Air Force. The cost of training a fighter pilot is prohibitive and time taken for him to become operational is significant. Therefore all efforts have to be made to save a fighter pilot from the malfunctioning aircraft. In the older era, the aircraft envelope was fairly limited. The speeds of the pre World War I fighters were low enough to permit manual bail out, where in, the pilot jumps out of the aircraft with parachutes on. However, the modern day fighter class of aircraft operates at speeds beyond Mach .2.0 and at altitudes from Ultra Low Levels (30m) to beyond 60,000’. The kind of maneuvers performed by the fighter pilots during operations leave little margin of error. Flying at such envelope, it would be impossible for a fighter pilot to bail out from the aircraft manually. Therefore ejection seats are a must for a safe escape from the malfunctioning aircraft. The ejection seats not only pr ovide a means of escape from the malfunctioning aircraft, but also house the Pilot Survival Pack which contains adequate reserve equipment for the pilot to survive for about 48 hours till rescue arrives. The type of survival pack would depend on the type of terrain over which the pilot is expected to operate namely jungle, snow or water. The first bungee assisted escape from an aircraft took place as early as 1910. Earliest example of ejection seat was a seat using compressed air, patented in 1916 by Everard Calthrop. The current design for ejection seat is attributable to Romanian inventor Anastase Dragomir. Dragomir patented his "catapult-able cockpit" at the French Patent Office (patent no. 678566, of April 2, 1930, Nouveau systà ¨me de montage des parachutes dans les appareils de locomotion aà ©rienne). This design was successfully tested on

Factors Of Waste Generation Environmental Sciences Essay

Factors Of Waste Generation Environmental Sciences Essay As a development country, the economic keep on growing and a lot of construction project will be carry out. Since this construction project is kept on increases, it will face a major problem on waste management. It is no longer strange or new for the construction waste and pollution produced in the sites which affect the environment issue. Reuse and recycling of construction waste is now a big recommendation for nowadays construction industry. There is a waste management which conducts a different management process in all over the world. Malaysia is using the Site Waste Management Plan to control the waste in our country. However, there are not much contractor follow the Site Waste Management Plan and just simply dump the construction wastes anywhere. The aim of this study is to learn the ways of recycling and reuse of construction waste management in a construction. Basically this study focus on what type of waste recycle to be use, which construction waste can be recycle or cannot be recycle, and the successful demolition of waste and issue of waste. With the study of waste management in Malaysia, I can know how the contractor did the waste management and how much level of awareness about waste minimization by contractor. 1.2 Introduction Construction waste is no longer a new issue or topic for a construction industry. Some waste is unavoidable even the design is perfect in a construction industry. Construction projects are required to make sure that it give impulse to the economy, improve the standard of living and provide opportunity for jobs. The overall construction industry make profit to the country however it is not an environmentally-friendly industry as it will cause air, water, noise and land pollution which all can be linked to the construction industry (Mohd Nizam Bin Yusoff, 2010). It is to be said that the construction industry creates chances and injects money into a nations economy by giving an opportunity for foreign and local investment (M. Agung, 2009). However, despite these contributions, the construction industry has also been linked to global warming, environmental pollution and degradation (Jones Greenwood, 2009). As we all know that not only construction can generates a huge amount of pollutants, including solid waste, noise, dust and water, other industries also will generate but in a small amount as compare to construction industries (Ball, 2002; Morledge Jackson, 2001). To start construction activities, construction cannot start if no any other direct influence industries. There are many direct influences on many other industries which define as both purchasing the inputs from other industries and providing products to almost all other industries, eliminating or reducing waste will produce a great amount of cost savings to society (Polat Ballard, 2004). Although Material Storage Management (MSM), the new concept for minimizing the waste in the construction industry is recognize, but contractor is not fully participate for this new concept. As the cost of labour is expensive than building materials cost, contractor rather allow construction material waste than put more human resources in managing the waste materials (Yau and Wong, 1997; Wong, 2000). Since foreign country are advance in controlling the construction waste strategies, Malaysia as a developer country should also consider about the problem occur in construction waste management. Recycling of construction waste will help the communities to reach the goal by preserve valuable space in their local landfills (Schlauder and Brickner, 1993). Nowadays many reuse and recycle method for construction waste which will lead to minimization of construction waste. Contractors will have to participate on such recycle method to overcome construction waste management problems. 1.3 Problem Statement Construction waste has affected the environmental problems especially for many large and developing cities. About 38% of the construction waste is generated from construction, which is among 6,408 tonnes of waste per annum are produced from construction activities. The amount wastes generate from construction industries is high as compare to other industry. This problem will affect the cost to expel the construction and demolition waste rising rapidly as it is becoming more and more expensive. The construction and demolition waste (CD) is the most critical waste in the whole world. According to Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2005, the total quantity of wastes in a year is 548,916.11 metric tonnes. This is a huge amount of wastes that we need to be considered and find out a way to control this situation. As from the Malaysia Environment Quality Report 2005, the oil and hydrocarbon waste has the highest percentage 22.4 while phenol/ Adhesive/ Resin waste has the lowest percentage of 0.3. On the other hand, for the type of industry, electronic waste is the highest with percentage of 23.7 while printing and packaging waste is the lowest with percentage of 0.5. Construction industry is a huge consumer of non-renewable resources and a massive producer of waste and the operation of the buildings are responsible for about half of the toal CO2 emissions (K. A. M. Kamar, Z. A. Hamid 2011). Therefore, it is needed to find out the solution and way to conduct waste control to minimize the construction waste. This must be start from now on and being practice by all construction industry to avoid pollution of environment and reduce the construction waste. 1.4 Scope of Study Construction waste management is too wide for carrying out a research as waste is classified into two types, waste of material and waste of manpower. In this situation, I will narrow down the scope of study for construction waste management in order to get my work done smoothly. In this case, I specify my scope of work by focusing on several aspects on construction waste management. Main focus of my research is on the Kuala Lumpur construction companys waste management practices in Malaysia. I will mainly focus on type of construction waste material which are metal and also concern about metal industry. This is because metal is considers as the middle waste produce in the construction industry and it is a common waste. Metal is always being used by construction industry and almost all the metal waste are not reuse or recycle in a proper ways. Besides, I will also focus on how the contractor reuse, recycle and remove other construction waste material from site. As for different construction industry, they will practice different ways of settling the construction waste and this will be interesting to be known. 1.5 Aim and Objectives Aims: To study the ways of recycling and reuse of construction waste management in a construction. Objectives: 2.2 To investigate the issue of waste generate by construction industry. 2.3 To determine the several factors lead to the waste generation and the success for recycling and demolition of construction waste. 2.4 To determine which construction waste can be recycling and which construction waste cannot be recycle. 1.6 Research Methodology Literature Review I will carry out my research by conducting literature review to further understand and be more familiar on the title and scope of research that I had chosen. I will try to read ad much information as I can about my topic which mainly obtains from internet, journal, books, newspapers, magazine and reference books. My literature review focus on the ways to recycle construction waste material, cause an effect of construction waste material and construction waste material pollution issue. As an overall picture, I carry out literature review to furnish myself on the construction waste management scope in our country. Questionnaire As for this research on construction waste in Malaysia, I will conduct questionnaire which mainly focus on main contractor, developer and sub-contractor. I will give out my questionnaire to about 70 construction firm to help me complete my survey question. I expected that I will receive about 30 respondents to enable me to analyze on the result and continue carry out my research study. The survey questions are design based on the aim and objectives that is stated earlier. Interview Interview will be conduct with main contractor or site agent to further understand their ways to remove construction waste in the site. Throughout interview, I can find out the difficulties of handling construction waste. Contractor can share some experience on how to reduce the waste or how to remove the waste on construction site to me and I think this might be helpful for me to do my research. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Definition of waste Nowadays the amount of construction waste contribute in a development country is extremely high. As compare to other waste produce by other industries, the construction waste is the highest generation of waste. Waste can be simply define or describe as the material which is produce by human or from industry which does not has residual value ( Serpell and Alarcon, 1998). There are a lot of definitions to describe waste as show below: Waste can be defined as that which can be throw away or dispose without reducing customer value. (Polat and Ballard, 2004) The loss or damage of whatever kind of resources is considered as waste. The waste on materials, time (labour and equipment), and capital is mainly conducted by activities that generate direct or indirect costs but do not increase any value to the last product from the point of view of the customer. (Formoso et al., 2002) Any substances or objects that are mainly for disposed or intended to be disposed or are needed to be disposed off by the provisions of national laws are defined as waste. (The Basal Convention, 1989) The by-product which is generated or remove from a construction work, renovation work and demolition work or sites of building and civil engineering structure is consider as waste. (Cheung, 1993) For any substances or article which are need to be disposed of as being broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled is consider as waste. (Section 75 of U.K. Environmental Protection Act (EPA), 1990) Table 2.1 Definitions of waste There are many waste generate everyday in a construction site such as construction waste, material waste and solid waste. Construction waste: Construction wastes are the wastes that are generated from the various activities carry out from the construction which is relatively clean and heterogeneous building material (Tchobanaglous et al., 1993). It is also define as the waste which includes the delay in time consuming, unsafely, rework, unnecessary transportation journeys, far distances, improper management of programme and poor constructability (Lee, et al., 1999). Besides that, (Peavy et al., 1985) indicated construction waste as the waste which is conducted from building works, demolition works and refurbishment works for individual housing, commercial building or other structures. According to (Shen et al., 2004), Construction wastes are arising from the different types of construction activities including the excavation, civil and building construction, site clearance, demolition activities, roadwork and building renovation which result the wastes in the formation of building debris, rubble, earth, concrete, steel, timber and mixed site clearance materials. For the new construction wastes, it is composed primarily of mixtures of unused or damaged raw materials as well as off cuts (discarded cut material) and packaging (Magdich, 1995). Materials waste: Materials waste is mean by whatever material that are far away from earth materials which requires to be transported elsewhere from the construction site or used among the construction site itself for the objective of land filling, incineration, recycling, reuse or composting, other than the intended specific purpose of the project due to materials damage, excess, un-reuse, or non-compliance with the specifications or being a by-product of the construction process (Ekanayake Ofori, 2000). Material wastes are categorized by the activity which are over-ordering, overproduction, wrong progressing, unsatisfied storage, manufacturing defects and theft or vandalism by human ( Garas et al., 2001). Solid waste: Wastes generate from human and animal activities are called solid waste. Wastes establish by public authorities for final disposal, including hazardous waste, liquid-solid sludge from industry and water/waste water plants are within this definition (Kiely , 1997). Solid waste is also to be said as the waste which is in solid form that are unusable or unwanted generally conducted by human activities (Peavy et al., 1985). 2.2 Issue of Waste When due to the issue of waste, the construction waste is or will subsequently become a serious environmental issue in many cities and countries all around the world (Chen et al., 2002; Ferguson et al., 1995; Shen et al., 2000, 2002; Smallwood, 2000; Wong and Tanner, 1997). (Faniran and Caban, 1988; Kibert, 1994; Ferguson et al., 1995; Graham and Smithers, 1996; Guthrie et al., 1999; Symonds, 1999; Lawson and Douglas, 2001.) Stated that waste management for construction and demolition activities has become the major environmental problems in many municipalities. Whenever there is a construction activities carry out, there will produce waste. Waste from the construction industry will cause global warming, environmental pollution and degradation (Jones Greenwood, 2009). Environmental problems in many big cities are also cause by the construction waste generated in construction activities (Begum et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2002; Teo Loosemore, 2001). There are several construction materials which contribute the cause of wastes such as steel reinforcement, premixed concrete, cement, sand, lime and premixed mortar, bricks and blocks, ceramic tiles pipes and wires Formoso et al., (2002). Based on the analysis on sources of wastes concluded that a high amount of material wastes is generated due to the flow of activities like material delivery, inventories and internal transportation and handling, which are usually neglected by site management (Formoso et al., 2002). A research from Environmental Protection Department stated that a daily average of 37,690 tonnes of Construction and Demolition (CD) wastes was conducted (EPD, 2000 a). Besides that, due to the development country which the construction industry activities increasing rapidly and shortage of sustainable landfill sites, the construction wastes are becoming a serious problem forcing the professionals and researchers to focus on the way to reuse the construction wastes (Masood et al, 2002). Globally estimate that many landfill sites around the world will receive 10-30% of construction and demolition (CD) waste frequently (Fishbein, 1998) while (Magdich, 1995) stated that construction and demolition wastes to be throwing to the landfills will contribute 25 percent from all the wastes. There are about 1-10% of the purchased construction materials will be leave at the site for the residential projects as waste (Bossink and Brouwers, 1996). Recent research which carry out in UK stated that at least 10% of all raw materials delivered to the sites will be wasted in the case of damage, loss and over-ordering (Guthrie et al., 1998). In the year of 2005, our lan dfills will be fully dispose of waste and the construction industry will no longer depend on landfills to dispose waste (EPD, 2002a). Other wastes are easy to be handled but for the construction waste, it is more difficult to be reuse or recycle due to the high levels of contamination and a huge degree of heterogeneity. (Bossink and Brouwers, 1996) say that construction waste also contains an extremely high amount of chemical wastes which is harmful and hard to be handling. Usually for the construction waste generate in construction activities will be dump to landfills and in recent days construction waste is recommended to be recycle to recognize its value and potentials of reusing them in future construction project (Trankler, et al., 1996; Peng et al., 1997). As for the total landfills wastes, construction and building activities takes 30% of the total volumes in the States while UK adds more than 50% and Australia takes 20%-30% (Teo and Loosemore, 2001). Research on the construction and demolition wastes has been done which indicate that about 15%-30% of all solid waste by weight and more than 90% of this waste is from landfill in the gulf region, especially in Kuwait (Kartam, et al. 2004). Untitled.png Figure 2.2 Hierarchy of construction and demolition waste (Peng et al., 1997). There are limited practices among the construction sector on the waste minimization, reuse and recycling method because of the building materials which are at relatively low cost (Begun et al 2009). There is no forcing that the construction companies must practice sustainable resource and waste management which conclude that illegal dumping is still an issue for the authorities (Begun et al 2009). As this figure 2.2.1 is concern, it specified that for the solid waste, it contribute the most among the other waste produce in a construction industry in Malaysia. Untitled.png Figure 2.2.1 Percentage of solid waste in 1994 by  ¼Ã‹â€ Hassan et al. ¼Ã…’1998). 2.3 Factors of waste generation 2.3.1 Classification of waste There are classifications of wastes in the construction industry. Research from the pass indicated that the material waste will occur or appear throughout the construction project no matter in initial stage, design stage, construction stage or operation stage (Craven et. al., 1994; Faniran and Caban, 1998; Gavilian and Bernold, 1994; Spivey, 1974). Basically for the building construction waste there will divide into two categories namely structure waste and finishing waste (Skoyles and Skoyles, 1987). Structure wastes are those wastes such as concrete fragment, reinforcement bars, abandoned timber plate and pieces. On the other hand, for finishing wastes, it included a wide range of waste materials which is generated during the finishing stage of the building (C.S.POON*, ANN T.W.YU and L.JAILLON 2003). Furthermore, wastes are being arranged into specific categories like demolition materials, packaging materials, wood, concrete, asphalt, garbage and sanitary wastes, scrap metal, products, rubber, plastic and glass, and pesticides and pesticide containers (Spivey, 1974). Singapore defined the classification of construction material waste into three major categories namely material waste, labor waste and machinery waste (Ekanayake and Ofori, 2000): Material waste: Any kind of materials which is unused and rejected as worthless or unwanted. Labor waste: Simply mean that the waste conducted by laborer such as concrete wasted due to unsatisfied workmanship, brick lay wrongly and broken of floor tiles. Machinery waste: Machinery which is order to the site but did not carry out the construction activities. Classification of solid waste is as below: Municipal waste which the wastes are paper, plastics, food wastes, ashes, and special wastes include Street sweepings and dead animals. Industrial waste which the wastes are timber, demolition and construction waste, treatment plant waste, hazardous waste. Hazardous waste which the wastes are radioactive substances, chemicals, biological waste, flammable waste and explosives. (Kiely , 1997). 2.3.2 Construction Industry Waste Generation A study on the generation of construction waste in the construction industry is very important. Waste generates in many kind of situation and it is important to be identified to reduce and improve the waste management. Nowadays a lot of countries were developing well in construction industry and cause the generation of huge amount of construction waste. Demand for houses and major infrastructure projects make the amount of construction waste keep increasing rapidly which will cause environmental issue (Nasaruddin et. al., 2008; Siti and Noor, 2008). Construction and demolition wastes surpass the volume of municipal wastes in most of the countries. This simply means that construction activities generate and produce a large amount of waste (Sim Lee Gaik, 2005). (Graham and Smithers, 1996) stated that as long as a construction activities or project is concern, there are several factors which will lead to the production of waste. Basically, it is often that the construction wastes are come from the result of human error in design, procurement method, material handling, residues of raw materials and unexpected change in building design (Bossink and Brouwers, 1996). Generally about 10% of the materials delivered to construction site will become wastes at the end of the construction activities (Magdich, 1995). A study contribute that the largest waste generated materials or component is woody (Goetz, 1998). As for other countries, waste generation is show as below: Hong Kong generated the major solid waste in construction industry and in the year of 1998, it generated approximately 32,710 tons of construction and demolition (CD) wastes per day (Poon et al., (2001). Greece surpasses 3.9 million tons of construction and demolition wastes for the year of 2002 which will continue increase the amount of waste subsequently (Fatta et al., 2003). Australian landfills have 20% to 30% of construction waste out of all wastes are being dispose (Craven et al., 1994). Brazil is to be saying that the amount of construction waste generated will be 20% of all materials delivered to site (Formoso et al., 2002). United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) mention that the amount of 124 million metric tons of building-related construction and demolition wastes or 1.2kg per person per day were produced in the year of 1996 (Weber et al., 2002). India has the total generation of construction waste about 14.7 million tons per year as stated in Central Pollution Control Board India (Pappu, 2006). Country CD Wastes (percentages %) The Netherlands 26 Australia 20-30 United States 20, 23, 24, 29 Germany 10 Finland 13-15 Table 2.3.2 CD Wastes as Percentage of All Solid Wastes Entering Landfills in Various Countries (Source: Bossink and Brouwers, 1996) Untitled.png Chart 2.3.2 CD Waste Generation in Million Tons Waste generate in Percentage Tourist Hotel and Industrial Projects 19% Commercial Projects 16% Low Rise Building 13% Government Projects 11% Tunnel and Infrastructure 8% High Rise Building 33% Table 2.3.2.1 Cumulative Percentages of Projects Generating Construction Waste in Egypt (Mohd Firdaus Bin Mustaffa Kamal, 2009) The involvements of waste generation are divided into five sections such as design, procurement, materials handling, construction/ renovation and demolition. The table below shows the different type of project phase which cause waste generated: (Graham and Sniithers., 1996) Untitled.png Table 2.3.2.2 Causes of waste in different project phase The construction and demolition wastes generate rubbish, wood/ related products and miscellaneous wastes where their percentage of waste generation is as follow: Rubbish 40%-50% such as concrete, asphalt, bricks, blocks and dirt. Woods and related products 20%-30% such as pallets, stumps, branches, forming and framing lumber, treated lumber and shingles. Miscellaneous wastes such as painted or contaminated lumber, metals, tar-based products, plaster, glass, white goods, asbestos and other insulation materials, and plumbing, heating and electrical parts. Tchobanoglous et al. (1993) 2.3.3 Wastes in Malaysia Malaysia, a developing country wishing to achieve status by 2020 is facing a big problem and challenge of decoupling economic growth and waste generation (National Economic Advisory Council, 2010). Construction waste generating in Malaysia is becoming more and more pressing issue (Begum et. al, 2007; Begum et. al., 2010). (Recycling Today, 16 March 2004) indicated that Malaysia has a subsequently high waste generator from the construction industry. It can be said that Malaysias construction waste is one of the largest waste rate and yet despite a number of government policy initiatives to address this problem, suitable resource and waste management on site remains a low priority for the majority of the contractors (Begum, 2009). Due to the rapid development and urbanization happen in Malaysia, our country produces about 25,600 tonnes of waste daily (Fazleena Aziz, 2010). There are five states in Malaysia which produce 70% of the total amount of waste in the country and there are Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan (Grant, 2001). 30 construction sites are conducted in a study which identified six types of waste materials namely concrete (12.32%), metals (9.62%), bricks (6.54%), plastics (0.43%), woods (69.10%) and others waste (2%). Among these wastes, woods contribute the most in our country (Faridah et. al., 2004). 28% of municipal solid waste and construction waste been generated in the central and southern regions of Malaysia (Mohd Nasir et Al., 1998). Overall summary of 16,000 tons of domestic waste is produced per day by local communities and the amounts per capita change from 0.45 to 1.44 kg per day which very much depending on the economic status of the areas concerned. This simply mean that waste generate about 1kg per capita per day (GAIA Global Meeting, 2003). Based on a research from Alam Flora Sdn. Bhd., there are only 76% of solid wastes are able to be collect back in Malaysia and only about 5% being recycle, with the rest of 95% disposed at the countrys 112 landfills (Alam Flora Sdn. Bhd., 2007). For our country Malaysia, it is quite surprise to say that the Government spends RM400 million per year on waste disposal and the waste is only refers to municipal solid waste which is a huge amount of money (The Star, 2005). Another issue happen in Malaysia is illegal dumping. Seberang Perai of Pulau Pinang stated that there are illegal dump site near along the road which is a very irresponsibility way of clearing the construction wastes (Faridah et. al., 2004). Besides Seberang Perai, the issue of illegal dumping is happening rapidly all over Malaysia (Yahaya and Larsen, 2008). Another study done in Johor which conclude that there are 42%-46% of illegal dumping sites are of construction waste (Rahmat and Ibrahim, 2007). Recent news indicated that almost 30 tons of construction waste was found to be dump illegally in tropical mangrove swamp near Bandar Hilir, Malacca and construction debris problem near roadside at Section 17, Petaling Jaya, Selangor (The Star, 2011; The Star, 2012). Those irresponsibility actions of illegal dumping will cause risk to human health and environmental problem (Faridah et. al., 2004; Rahmat and Ibrahim, 2007). The National Strategic Plan for Solid Waste Management was form in 2005 which mainly focus on solid waste management in peninsular Malaysia and the duration is until 2020 providing the foundation for the subsequent years (United Nations Development Programme, 2008). 2.3.4 Purpose of Waste Management The main purpose of conducting waste management is to reduce/ remove the amount of waste produced and in the same time reducing disposal costs and the environmental impact (Pitt et al., 2002). Waste need to be carries out by using recycle and reusing method so that it will not affect the environment factors and improve our future life. According to (Woolley, 2000), with the help of waste management in term of reducing, reusing and recycling of CD waste, it will help to increase the lifetime of landfills and reduce exploration of natural resources. One of the strategies to reduce waste is by recycling as it contributes to three main advantages (Edwards, 1999): Reduce demand for new resources Reduce transport and production energy costs Use the waste which would otherwise he lost to landfill sites. It is important to carry out waste management from now on although a very small amount of construction and demolition wastes is now recovered by waste management, for sure there will be greater amount of wastes to be recycle in the future in such a way that higher tipping fees, mandatory landfill diversion legislation and the success of entrepreneurs in processing both source-separated and mixed wastes (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993). As by using the recycling method for construction waste, it can help to decrease the demand on land for disposing the waste and also help to conserve natural materials and to reduce the cost of waste treatment prior to disposal (Poon, 2002). Waste management is used for a sustainable development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland, 1987). 2.3.5 Waste Management It is a major problem suffered worldwide about the management of construction waste (Adam, 2004). Recycling of construction wastes simply mean that the separation and recycling of recoverable waste which are form during the construction and remodeling stage (Mohd Nizam Bin Yusoff, 2010). Research indicated that 90% of the construction wastes can be recyclable to be reused (Mohd Nizam Bin Yusoff, 2010). The main point of view that will cause the waste generation is by design stage. Design stage will taken into control of materials waste on construction sites as it is taking a central role to help minimizing waste produced (Shen, et al., 2004). To manage the construction wastes well, the method of managing is very important as it should be part of the project management functions and involve employees participation (Shen and Tam, 2002). A lot of various management methods have been applied and discuss from previous research in order to improve the control on construction wastes (Sim Lee Gaik, 2005) and (Koskela, 1992; Alarcon, 1997) mention that many methods have been drawn up and developed such as in the way of policy and programmes to help to reduce the construction waste. Construction management plan is introduce to improve materials resource efficiency by carry out reuse, recovery and recycling as well as to minimize the issue of illegal dumping by properly introduce the waste removal processes (Defra, 2009). As for a successful waste management, the construction waste should not be directly disposed but it needs to pass through several processes before being disposed. The method to treat the proper waste management is to follow the waste management hierarchy (Peng et. al., 1997). By following the concept of waste management hierarchy it will give advantages to the environmental and economy problem to a country (Tchobanoglous and Keith, 2002). Figure 2.3.5 Waste Management Hierarchy (Source: Peng et. al., 1997) Another waste management methodologies in the form of hierarchy in descending order from reducing waste, re